The Musical Style of Louis Armstrong, 1925-1929 by H. David Caffey

The article that follows was published in the Journal of Jazz Studies, Fall 1975, Volume 3, Number 1. The JJS was published as a printed journal between 1973 and 2011 at which time it became an open-access online journal. It appears that the only way to find issues of the JJS and the Annual Review of Jazz Studies, or ARJS, which the JJS took as its name from 1980 to 2011, is to search an Academic or Public Library that maintains collections of scholarly journals. At its 50th Anniversary, I decided that I wanted to have a digital version of the article that would be accessible. Here it is!

THE MUSICAL STYLE OF

LOUIS ARMSTRONG, 1925-1929

H. David Caffey

Some of the most important and interesting work in the history of jazz was accomplished by Louis Armstrong and his various groups known as the Hot Five and the Hot Seven. These groups were formed by Armstrong for recording purposes during the years 1925 through 1929. By examining several individual recordings, the author hopes to pinpoint some of the characteristics of the style referred to as "pre-classical"' by Hodeir¹ and "pre-swing" by Ostransky.² The selections which will be studied include "Heebie Jeebies," "Potato Head Blues," Struttin' with Some Barbecue, " "West End Blues." "Weather Bird," and "Muggles."³ These are considered by jazz historians such as Gunther Schuller⁴ and Richard Hadlock⁵ to be some of Armstrong's more important recordings of this period.

"Heebie Jeebies," from February 1926, is one of the earliest recordings made by the Hot Five, which consists of Armstrong on cornet, Johnny Dodds on clarinet, Kid Ory on trombone, Johnny St. Cyr on banjo, and Lil Hardin Armstrong (Louis's wife) on piano. This recording is actually not as important for its musical value or influence as it is because it was Armstrong's first hit record. (It "is said to have shifted [sold] 40,000 copies within a few weeks of its release.''⁶) Also, it affords us a look at the beginning of Louis Armstrong and the Hot Five.

There is very little innovation in "Heebie Jeebies." The format is conceived in the old New Orleans style. Leroy Ostransky makes this observation concerning the function of the individual instruments in New Orleans style:

...the standard New Orleans instrumentation and its function have

their foundation in the last strain of band marches where

characteristically the melody is carried by the cornets or trumpets

against a countermelody in the   low brasses and a florid embellishment

in the high woodwinds.⁷

This describes what occurs in the ensemble sections of the piece. 

The piece begins with a piano introduction of eight measures. After the intro there are two choruses of full ensemble playing which, as described above, is very much in the New Orleans tradition. Note the two-measure glissando which Ory plays as a pickup to the ensemble section in measures 7 and 8. This is, of course, an example of the style known as "tailgate trombone," also a holdover of New Orleans style. The length of each chorus or verse is 18 measures. It is actually 16 measures long with a two-bar extension or "tag" each time. A clarinet solo follows the full ensemble section. The solo is 18 measures long (one full chorus), and Dodds is accompanied by both piano and banjo. The rhythm section behind Dodds plays primarily on the beat only. However, in measures 5 through 8 of his solo the background rhythms (especially in the banjo) become slightly more complex, adding a great deal more interest to the overall sound.

Armstrong sings for 36 measures following Dodds's solo. In the first chorus he sings a relatively straight version of the original song. In the second verse, however, he completely abandons the lyric and original melody in favor of an improvised vocal solo. This is probably the first use of "scat singing" on record; it is at least the first well known example. Gunther Schuller makes the following statement regarding Armstrong's singing in his discussion of "Heebie Jeebies":

To the listener oriented to "classical" singing, Louis's voice,

with its rasp and totally unorthodox technique, usually

comes as a complete shock. The reaction is often to set

the voice aside as primitive and uncouth. Actually, Louis's

singing is but a vocal counterpart of his playing, just as

natural and as inspired. In his singing we can hear all the

nuances, inflections, and natural ease of his trumpet

playing, including even the bends and scoops, vibrato,

and shakes. Louis's singing is unique and its own

justification. It has added a new school of technique

of singing to Western music, notwithstanding the fact

that its orientation is completely African in origin.⁸

Following Armstrong's vocal solo is another full ensemble section. Armstrong does not play in the first eight measures of this last chorus, however. During the first eight measures of the chorus Ory takes over the role normally filled by the trumpet by playing the principle melody (even though he seems to collapse in the last half of the eight measures). Armstrong adds his cornet to the last half of the chorus signaling a return to the full texture of the first chorus. The eight-measure coda played by the piano and banjo is texturally and rhythmically reminiscent of the introduction. Notice that the banjoist accidentally plays on the first beat of measure 4 of the coda. Recording techniques in 1926 were primitive by today's standards. The entire group was required to play straight through on each take and splicing was not possible. Thus, this obvious mistake was left. Actually, it is a tribute to the musicians that few obvious mistakes were made, especially since there were seldom any retakes.

In May 1927 Armstrong expanded his recording group to seven by adding tuba and drums. Incidentally, the new drummer was Warren "Baby" Dodds, Johnny Dodds's brother. The group recorded 11 sides within a period of eight days, of which Schuller says: "Though they were far above average and added to Armstrong's fame, they produced only one truly remarkable performance...."⁹ That performance was "Potato Head Blues," particularly Armstrong's stop-time solo. Stop-time indicates that the entire band plays only on the first beat of every other measure.

Schuller states that there are "three... types of phrases that are completely characteristic of and individual to Armstrong,"¹⁰ as follows:

1.   A descending "line" (not necessarily scalar) which is followed by an ascending

seventh interval.

2.   Use of a rhythmic pattern of two short quarter notes and a third long quarter

note or two quarters followed by a dotted quarter note. "With its two shortened

notes and one long note…, the long note usually embellished with a light shake,

it was an effective pattern for establishing an easy, relaxed swing feeling.

3.   Emphasizing the highest note of the phrase by "ripping" up to it.

Examples of all these characteristics are found in the "Potato Head Blues solo (ex. 1) (all transcriptions in this article are by the author).

Armstrong plays a descending line which is followed by an ascending (enharmonic) seventh in measures 11 and 12. He uses the 3-note rhythmic pattern in measures 2 and 8; a variation of this rhythm is used in measures 14 and 30. Armstrong uses the high-note rip twice in this solo, in measures 25 and 31.

By the time this solo was recorded, Armstrong had extended the upper range of the trumpet much higher than any earlier trumpet player. In the "Potato Head Blues" solo Armstrong reaches to two concert As and one high C. (To be sure, he fluffs the first A, but the other two high pitches are played with certainty and power.) In a recording of "Dippermouth Blues," Joe "King" Oliver (the most prominent cornetist until Armstrong's emergence as a soloist) never plays higher than a concert G.¹¹     

Armstrong makes very skillful use of chromatic non-chord tones in this solo. Evidence of this can be seen in measures 4, 15-16, and 29. The D-flat appoggiatura over the D' chord in measure 12 is a surprising and striking effect. It resolves downward to the C. In measure 20, Armstrong deftly surrounds the chord tone E with the D, D-sharp, and F.

One of the most memorable phrases of the solo begins at measure 25, of which Schuller observes:

It has always seemed to me that Hoagy Carmichael must have

been familiar with this passage. Bars 3 and 4 of "Stardust" contain

exactly the same notes and chords (at a ballad tempo, of course) as

the first bars of the Armstrong example (mm. 25-27). "Stardust" was

written in 1927, and Hoagy Carmichael was an intimate of Bix

Beiderbecke's circle, whose hero was Louis Armstrong.¹²

It should be pointed out (in case it has not been discovered from examination of

the transcription) that "Potato Head Blues" is not constructed in a 12-bar blues form as its name perhaps implies. It is a 32-bar form which clearly breaks down into two 16-measure parts. This 32-bar form retains its identity throughout except for a four-bar banjo solo which is inserted before Armstrong's stop-time solo. It should be noted also that Armstrong's first solo, which is not in stop-time, lasts only one-half of a chorus. The chorus starts over with the beginning of Dodds's clarinet solo.

The ensemble playing in "Potato Head Blues" is still basically in New Orleans style although the trombonist plays in a more sustained and melodic fashion than probably had been heard before. At about the time of this recording, increasing emphasis was placed on solos as opposed to improvised ensembles. Space is allotted for three separate solos in "Potato Head Blues."

In December 1927 Armstrong returned to the Hot Five formula, using the members of the original recording group. One of the most successful and interesting recordings made at this time by Armstrong and his Hot Five was "Struttin' With Some Barbecue. "Armstrong's solo on "Struttin' With Some Barbecue" exhibits his musical prowess in relation to what was being done elsewhere in 1927. Ostransky points out that the old New Orleans jazzman seldom thinks melodically more than two or four measures ahead, usually just two measures. His melody tends to be rather aimless. There is an abundance of perfectly structured two-and four-measure phrases. 13 In "Struttin', "Armstrong has left this type of solo construction far behind. In his solo, no phrase is shorter than four measures in length. From measures 84 through 92 there are two phrases of four-measure length, yet the two phrases work together in an antecedent-consequent relationship. The phrase beginning with the pickups to measure 101 is six measures long. The phrase is logically constructed. The line ascends to the G in measure 104 and very naturally finishes its ascension on the A-flat in measure 105.

Examples of the characteristic Armstrong devices which were mentioned earlier can be heard throughout this recording. The 3-note rhythmic pattern is used in measure 1 and 2, 3 and 4, 9 and 10, 13, 29, 87 and 88, and 111. Use of the "rip" at the top of a phrase occurs in measures 7, 34, 98, and 105. A descending line which terminates with an ascending seventh is played in measures 96 through 98.

It is important to note that Armstrong does not overuse these devices. They are simply parts of his musical vocabulary which are used more often than other devices. They are personal techniques which assist the listener in instantly recognizing an Armstrong solo or phrase.

One of the most important components of Armstrong's style and tonal conception is his vibrato. Armstrong's vibrato is very personal. It can cause a single note to be intense with forward movement. Notice how effective his vibrato is in the full ensemble section of "Struttin'" beginning at measure 13.

Two other inflective devices which are distinctly Armstrong trademarks are the "shake" and the "terminal vibrato" (a term first used by Andre Hodeir). Schuller discusses these terms and provides a graphic illustration of one: ¹⁴

The shake [is] simply a more extreme way of enlivening and

swinging the tone. The terminal vibrato [is] frequently used on

longer notes, which start[ed] relatively "straight" and gradually

"loosen[ed] up" to end in a wide vibrato or shake or, in its most

extreme form, in a rip.

The terminal Vibrato is illustrated as follows:

Armstrong makes good use of the shake and terminal vibrato in his stop-time solo in "Potato Head Blues." Examples can be found in measures 2, 8, 15, 16, 19, and 24 of the solo. The shake is not used so abundantly in "Struttin'." Extreme vibrato is more apparent in the ensemble sections (measures 13, 17, 19, 23).

In "Struttin'" there is a noticeable background change from one solo to the next. Underneath the clarinet solo, the piano and banjo pound out every beat. During Kid Ory's 16 measures the piano plays only on beats 2 and 4, while the banjo continues on every beat. When Armstrong enters, both background parts begin to play on beats 2 and 4, leaving 1 and 3 silent. Armstrong's solo over this background emphasizes his rhythmic competence.

In "Struttin'" more and more pre-arranging of the music becomes apparent. The introduction sounds as if it must have been written out for the performers, and there can be no doubt that the horn chords at measures 107 through 110 and at the end were decided upon before recording.

In June 1928, Armstrong again assembled the Hot Five for recording purposes. It was a different Hot Five, however; at this time all the original members of the group were replaced. The most important new musician was Earl Hines, who replaced Lil Armstrong on piano. (Later in 1928 Armstrong and Hines collaborated on several recordings which proved to be the most far reaching achievements of the late 1920s.) Ory was replaced by Fred Robinson, Dodds by Jimmy Strong, and Johnny St. Cyr by Mancy Cara. Drummer Zutty Singleton was added, bringing

the actual total to six.

With this new assemblage Armstrong recorded the. famous "West End Blues." Richard Hadlock sums up the significance of this recording.

It has everything: big-toned bravura trumpet playing; effective

contrast of expressive simplicity and instrumental complexity; 

logical development of mood and theme from beginning to

end; heart-warming, tender scat vocal refrain; a perfect balance

of all historical aspects of the Armstrong musical personality.¹⁵

"West End Blues" begins with a virtuosic trumpet cadenza. In the two phrases which make up the introduction, Armstrong intimates much of what is to follow in the body of the piece. For example, note how the introduction progresses rhythmically from simple to complex. This same phenomenon can be observed in the first blues chorus which begins at measure 11, as well as in the third chorus (measures 35-46) and the final chorus (59-66).

Also, the last measure of the cadenza and measure 13 are similar in construction. In both instances, the phrase ending descends to the seventh of the underlying harmony. In measures 21 and 22, Armstrong again uses an idea originally found in the introduction. He plays the ascending triplet figure first heard in measures 3 and 4. (Notice, incidentally, the terminal vibrato he uses on the last note of the first chorus.)

The introduction itself is remarkably constructed. The basic pulse of the intro is clearly twice as fast as that of the tune which follows ("double-time''). An interesting twist occurs at measure 3, however. At this point, Armstrong plays triplets which do not relate metrically to the beat he establishes in the first two measure. Instead, the eighth note of the triplet equals the eighth note of the preceding quarter note. In effect, Armstrong creates a "metric modulation."¹⁶ Schuller comments on the first four notes of Armstrong's introduction:

These four notes should be heard by all people who do

not understand the difference between jazz and other music,

or those who question the uniqueness of the element of swing.

These notes as played by Louis - not as they appear in notation –

are as instructive a lesson in what constitutes swing as jazz has to offer.

The way Louis attacks each note, the quality and exact duration of each

pitch, the manner in which he releases the note, and the subsequent

split-second silence before the next note - in other words the entire

acoustical pattern - present in capsule form and the essential

characteristics of jazz inflection. ¹⁷

Beginning in the fifth measure, Armstrong returns to the originally established beat. In the last half of the introductory cadenza, he makes skillful use of sequential phrase construction.

In "West End Blues" the listener is again given the opportunity to hear Armstrong's scat singing. This occurs in the third chorus, which begins at measure 35. Armstrong seems to have more vocal control here than in "Heebie Jeebies." Of course, the expressive objectives of these two selections are quite different. At any rate, his voice seems to have a much more mellow quality. This chorus is shared by Armstrong and the clarinetist, Strong. It is based on a call-and-response pattern, which seems to be fairly well worked out in advance.

John Mehegan in his book on jazz improvisation points out that one of the major developments in the transition from New Orleans style to Chicago style is the "emergence of the piano as a melodic-harmonic instrument."¹⁸ This is indeed true as demonstrated by Earl Hines's piano performance on "West End Blues." (It is safe to state that Armstrong's groups were well into Chicago style by the time of "West End Blues.") In his solo on the fourth chorus, Hines shows great technical facility and musical imagination. Although he perhaps does not match Armstrong's standard of playing on this recording, his solo is, nevertheless, of a very high caliber.

Armstrong exhibits his incredible strength and stamina with his solo on the last chorus. He sustains a high (concert) B-flat over four measures, controlling the pitch and tone quality perfectly throughout. This is absolutely phenomenal when one considers that the year was 1928. Schuller comments on the last chorus:

As remarkable as the performance is thus far, Louis's final chorus is

the perfect climax, structurally and emotionally. It can only be

described as ecstatic. Beginning with a long high B-flat, held for

almost four measures, Louis builds up an extraordinary sustained tension.

All the pent-up tension of this long note finds release in an impassioned,

almost stammering repetitive phrase that seems to float,

completely unencumbered rhythmically, above the accompaniment.

This chorus fulfills the structural conditions of climax with a sense of

inevitability that is truly astonishing in an improvised work.¹⁹

Incidentally, the "stammering repetitive phrase" Schuller refers to (measures 62 and 63) is derived directly from the introduction at measure 5.

Another Hot Five recording session took place in December 1928. Two of the selections from this date are considered by many to be the high point of Armstrong's early recording career. The two pieces are "Weather Bird" and "Muggles."

"Weather Bird" is of special interest. On this selection Armstrong and Hines (on piano) performed unaccompanied, playing some of the most influential jazz of the 1920s.

There is extraordinary rapport between them. Hines is not a mere

accompanist to Louis; he participates fully in the improvisatory

give and take. As the two players challenge each other, try to

outflank each other, they alternate between complete unanimity

rhythmically and melodically, and complete independence. In

extreme cases of the latter-with both players involved in inde-

pendent syncopated lines and cross accents-the explicit beat is

momentarily suspended. Here the two masters are years ahead of

all other jazz musicians, and Armstrong in particular provided a

fund of phrase turns that trumpet players were still borrowing and

making into clichés ten years later. Both musicians here anticipate

for a moment the future of jazz; they are unencumbered by the

incessant "chomping" of a rhythm section and project strong

linear shapes that propel the music forward ‑ airy, jagged lines and

rhythms that even then pointed toward the bop lines of the forties.²⁰

The manner in which the two musicians handle the final section of this three-part composition deserves special attention. (The composition, by Joe "King" Oliver, is written in a three-part ragtime form. The letter scheme of the entire piece is A¹B¹B²A²C¹C²C³-Coda.) In the C-portion of the performance, Armstrong and Hines gradually break down the 16-bar structures into progressively smaller subdivisions until, by the end, each component is a mere measure in length. A schematic diagram (ex. 4) of the ending follows.²¹

The two-bar breaks at C² and C³ serve as a point of departure at the coda for the final

dissolution into subdivisions.

Ex. 4. “Weather Bird,” December 5, 1928

Structural divisions     C¹                      C²                                 Instrumentation         Piano solo        Trpt (break)     Duet    Trpt (break)     Duet   

            Number of bars                      16                 2                        6           2                       6

C³                                                                                                                                                                  

Piano (break)              Duet                Piano (break)              Duet                           

2                                     6                               2                         6

Coda

Trpt     Piano   Trpt     Piano      Trpt     Piano   Trpt     Piano   Trpt/Piano                   II

2              2         2           2               1           1          1            1             1 (ritard)                  II

All of the members of the band are involved in the recording of "Muggles," although no significant ensemble playing takes place. The piece, which is in 12-bar blues form, is a vehicle for individual solos by Hines, Robinson, Strong, and Armstrong. The solos offered by the first three musicians, while adequate, never achieve the level of imagination and sophistication of Armstrong's solo.

In the last two measures of Strong's chorus, Armstrong performs a solo-break which transforms the original slow blues tempo into a bouncy double-time feeling. The energy level of the entire performance surges upward with Armstrong’s ascending line in the break.

The double-time portion of his solo is an excellent example of maximum swing derived from a minimum of notes. Notice how many B-flats follow one after the other in measures 5 through 18.

The effect of Armstrong's rhythmically active solo seems to be heightened by the ensemble performance underneath it. All but Cara (on banjo) play long, sustained lines under the solo. Only Cara plays on every beat in the new tempo. The result of this background combination

is quite subtle and surprising.

Even though Armstrong appears to be playing a conceptually different type of solo from the previous examples, he does include some of his characteristic devices. For example, he uses the three-note rhythmic pattern in measure 16 and again in measure 25. Variations of the pattern in measure 25 follow in measures 26, 27, and 28. Another device, the rip up to the high note, is used in measure 14.

Hinted at in measure 20, and firmly established in measure 21, is a return to the original slow blues tempo. In these last sixteen measures Armstrong delivers

…one of his most impassioned statements. Earthy, plaintive,

expansively declamatory, weighted down with blue notes—it is

the epitome of sophisticated urban instrumental blues. ²²

Note that Hines plays solo-fills in the last chorus behind Armstrong's solo, further evidence of the important role of the piano as a melodic instrument in the new style. Also, notice the hint of double-time Armstrong provides in measure 32.

Louis Armstrong's recording career spanned almost 50 years. Of all those years, the four years in the late twenties were, without a doubt, his most important from a musical standpoint. His recordings with the Hot Five and the Hot Seven caused far-reaching changes in the course of jazz. With Armstrong, the importance of the individual soloist begins to take precedence. He was indeed the first great jazz soloist.

NOTES

1. André Hodeir, Jazz: Its Evolution and Essence (New York: The Grove Press, 1956),

p. 24.

2.   Leroy Ostransky, The Anatomy of Jazz (Seattle: University of Washington Press,

1960), p. 135.

3.      These selections can be found on The Louis Armstrong Story, Columbia Records,

CL 851-CI854. All but "Heebie Jeebies" and "Muggles" are included in the

Smithsonian Collection of Classic Jazz, P6 11891.

4.      Gunther Schuller, Early Jazz (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp. 89 ff.

5.      Richard Hadlock, Jazz Masters of the Twenties (New York: The Macmillan Company,

1965), pp. 25-47.

6.   Max Jones and John Chilton, Louis: The Louis Armstrong Story (Boston: Little, Brown

and Company, 1971), p. 97.

7.      Ostransky, Anatomy, p. 150.

8.     Schuller, Early Jazz, p. 100.

9.     Ibid., p. 106.

10.    Ibid., p. 94

11. Joe "King" Oliver, King Oliver and His Orchestra, Epic Records, LA 16003. A

transcription of Oliver's solo appears in John Mehegan's Jazz Improvisation (New

York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1959), 2:63.

12.    Schuller, Early Jazz, p. 108.

13. Ostransky, Anatomy, p. 160.

14.    Schuller, Early Jazz, p. 97.

15.   Hadlock, Jazz Masters, p. 38.

16.    Schuller, Early Jazz, p. 117.

17.    Ibid., p. 116.

18.   Mehegan, Jazz Improvisation. 2:39.

19. Schuller, Early Jazz, pp. 118-19.

20.    Ibid., p. 124.

21.    Ibid., p. 126.

22.    Ibid., p. 127.